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Species of reptile

Brown tree ophidian
Conservation condition
Least Concern (IUCN iii.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Grade:	Reptilia
Order:	Squamata
Suborder:	Serpentes
Family unit:	Colubridae
Genus:	Boiga
Species:	B. irregularis
Binomial proper noun
Boiga irregularis (Merrem, 1802)
Synonyms
Coluber irregularis Merrem, 1802 Boiga irregularis Fitzinger, 1826 Dipsas irregularis Boie, 1827 Triglyphodon irregularis Duméril & Bibron, 1854 Dipsadomorphus irregularis Boulenger, 1896

The brownish tree snake (Boiga irregularis), also known as the brownish catsnake, is an arboreal rear-fanged colubrid snake native to eastern and northern coastal Australia, eastern Republic of indonesia (Sulawesi to Papua), Papua New Guinea, and many islands in northwestern Melanesia. This snake is infamous for existence an invasive species responsible for extirpating the majority of the native bird population in Guam.^[i] It is too one of the very few colubrids found in Commonwealth of australia, where elapids are more mutual.

Diet [edit]

The brown tree snake preys upon birds, lizards, bats, and rats and other small rodents in its native range.^[1] Information technology preys on birds and shrews in Guam.^[ii] They threaten local birds and lizards such as the Dubious dtella.

Attributable to the availability of prey and lack of predators in introduced habitats such every bit Guam, they have been known to grow to larger sizes than their normal 1 to 2 m (3.3 to vi.6 ft) in length.^[ane] The longest recorded length of this species is one found on Guam measuring iii m (9.8 ft).^[1]

Reproduction [edit]

The reproductive characteristics of the brown tree ophidian have not been widely studied.^[1] The female is known to produce 4 to 12 ellipsoidal eggs, 42–47 mm (1.7–1.ix in) long and 18–22 mm (0.71–0.87 in) wide with leathery shells.^[1] Females may produce upward to two clutches per year depending upon seasonal variations in climate and prey affluence.^[one] The female person deposits the eggs in hollow logs, rock crevices, and other sites where they are probable protected from drying and high temperatures.^[one] Populations on Guam may reproduce year round.^[3]

Venom [edit]

The brown tree snake is a nocturnal, rear-fanged colubrid, possessing two small, grooved fangs at the rear of the mouth.^[iv] Due to the placement of the fangs and their grooved rather than hollow architecture, the venom is hard to convey into a seize with teeth on a human, and thus is only delivered in small doses. The venom appears to be weakly neurotoxic and possibly cytotoxic with localized effects that are trivial for developed humans; serious medical consequences have been limited to children, who are more susceptible because of their low body mass.^[one] The ophidian has been reported every bit aggressive,^[i] but is not considered dangerous to an adult human.^[four] The venom seems to be primarily used to subdue lizards, which can exist more easily positioned in the rear of the rima oris for venom delivery.^[ane]

Brown tree snake, Queensland, in characteristic "Southward-posture"

Brown tree ophidian on a argue post on Guam

Invasive species [edit]

Shortly later on World War Two, and before 1952, the brown tree snake was accidentally transported from its native range in the South Pacific to Guam, probably as a stowaway in send cargo or past itch into the landing gear of Guam-jump aircraft.^{[one] [4] [v]} As a consequence of abundant casualty resources on Guam and the absence of natural predators apart from feral pigs and mangrove monitors, brown tree snake populations reached unprecedented numbers. Snakes caused the extirpation of most of the native wood vertebrate species; thousands of power outages affecting private, commercial, and armed forces activities; widespread loss of people's pets; and considerable emotional trauma to residents and visitors alike when snakes invaded human habitats with the potential for envenomation of small children. Since Guam is a major transportation hub in the Pacific, numerous opportunities exist for the brown tree snakes on Guam to exist introduced accidentally to other Pacific islands as passive stowaways in send and air traffic from Guam.^[1] To minimize this threat, trained dogs are used to search, locate, and remove chocolate-brown tree snakes before outbound military and commercial cargo and transportation vessels leave the island.^[6] Numerous sightings of this species take been reported on other islands including Wake Isle, Tinian, Rota, Okinawa, Diego Garcia, Hawaii, and even Texas in the continental United states of america.^[7] Hawaii is especially at heavy risk from the snake, as direct military flights between Guam and Hawaii are allowed and brownish tree snakes are regularly intercepted at landing areas. A successful introduction could pose an immense threat to the already highly threatened endemic birds of the islands.^[8] An incipient population was thought to exist established on Saipan after sightings effectually the port,^{[1] [nine]} however after 20 years without a sighting it appears that Saipan's biosecurity inspections have worked and the isle is free of them.^[nine] Acetaminophen has been used to assistance eradicate the snake on Guam.^[x]

Underlying biology [edit]

Full general characteristics [edit]

The brown tree snake is a nocturnal, arboreal species that uses visual and chemic cues in hunting in the tropical rainforest awning and/or on the ground.^[11] It is a member of the subfamily Colubrinae, genus Boiga, which is a grouping of roughly 20 v species that are referred to every bit "cat-eyed" snakes for their vertical pupils.^[12] The brown tree snake is more often than not i–2 m (iii–6 ft) in length in its native range. The ophidian is long and slender, which facilitates its climbing ability and allows it to pass through tiny spaces in buildings, logs, and other shaded locations, where information technology seeks refuge during daylight. Variations in coloration occur in the serpent's native range, ranging from a lightly patterned brown to xanthous/green or even biscuit with red, saddle-shaped blotches. They are rear-fanged, accept a large head in relation to their torso, and tin can survive for extended periods of time without food.^[12]

Predatory behaviour [edit]

The brown tree snake is a generalist feeder known to consume a wide variety of foods, when threatened is highly aggressive and tends to lunge and strike the assaulter repeatedly. The serpent has numerous teeth, merely only the last two on each side of the upper jaw have grooves, which inject venom every bit it bites. Therefore, the snake'south mouth must be opened as broad as possible to insert and expose its fangs. A chewing motility is used by the snake to inject the venom by means of capillary action along the grooved fangs. The venom is used to subdue and impale casualty on which the snake feeds; however, the venom is not considered dangerous to adult humans. In addition to subduing its victim with its venom, the brown tree ophidian often wraps its body around the prey, like a constrictor, to immobilize the prey while chewing and consuming the animal.^[1]

Lasso locomotion [edit]

A recent report constitute that brown tree snakes in Guam tin can apply "lasso locomotion" to climb large polish cylinders. This blazon of locomotion has non previously been observed in snakes.^{[thirteen] [xiv]}

Native habitat [edit]

The brown tree snake is native to coastal Commonwealth of australia, Papua New Guinea, and many islands in northwestern Melanesia. The species occurs on variably sized islands, extending from Sulawesi in eastern Indonesia through Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands and into the wettest coastal areas of Northern Australia.^[xi] The snakes on Guam represent the only documented reproductive population outside the native range. Since Jan 2016, all the same, iv snakes have been sighted on the island of Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands.^[fifteen]

Current habitats [edit]

The brown tree serpent is not restricted to forested habitats, as it tin also occur in grasslands and sparsely forested areas, likewise. In Papua New Republic of guinea, it occupies a wide diverseness of habitats at elevations upwards to 1,200 m.^[16] It is most commonly institute in trees, caves, and near limestone cliffs, but frequently comes down to the basis to fodder at nighttime. It hides during the twenty-four hours in the crowns of palm copse, hollow logs, rock crevices, caves, and even the dark corners of thatched houses near the roof.^[11] Based on the frequency of sightings of this serpent, in relation to buildings, poultry, and caged birds, the snake is considered to exist common in human being-disturbed habitats.^[17]

Physiological testify for reproductive suppression [edit]

Ecology stressors such as lack of shelter, climate modify, overcrowding, and loss of prey have been researched as chief causes of diminished snake density, as they have been found to accept straight correlation with the reproductive success of the snake. Current enquiry on the breeding patterns of the chocolate-brown tree snake is being conducted in hopes of further agreement how these environmental stressors are affecting the population density of the ophidian on Guam.^[18]

A study conducted by I.T. Moore predicted that low body status would correlate to high levels of stress hormones and depression levels of sex steroids in complimentary-living chocolate-brown tree snakes on Guam when compared with the native serpent population in Australia and snakes held in captivity on Guam. After extensive research, the body condition in the free-living snakes was constitute to be significantly different from the body condition of native and captive snakes.^[18] The results adamant, "depressed trunk condition and elevated plasmacorticosteron levels in the free-living animals suggest that a lack of food resource was placing individuals under chronic stress, resulting in suppression of the reproductive arrangement." The report suggested that snakes living under stressful conditions such equally high population densities or low casualty resources had suppressed reproduction at multiple stages, including steroidogenesis and gametogenesis.^[19]

Current status [edit]

Currently, the brownish tree snake population on Guam is declining with an equilibrium population size predicted to be roughly 30 to 50 snakes per hectare (12-twenty per acre). The decline in snake population may be identified as a result of depleted food resources, adult bloodshed, and/or suppressed reproduction.^[xx] The dark-brown tree snake population on Guam has exceeded the conveying chapters of the island.

Species condition and result [edit]

Boiga irregularis from Washington DC Zoo

Outcome of early on introduction [edit]

The introduction of the brownish tree snake on Guam later WWII has had a significant bear upon on the community dynamics of the isle. Upon its introduction the brown tree ophidian population exploded and spread beyond the entirety of Guam. The brown tree snake population on the island has reached pinnacle densities of greater than 100 snakes per hectare.^[20] This population spike was caused by the copious amount of resources newly available to the brown tree snake upon its introduction. The limitations on the ophidian's population in its native range is predominantly food based. The snake's food source is far more limited in its native range than on the island of Guam equally the prey in its natural range boasts significantly more natural defences to the snake than the prey on Guam.^[16]

The predominant population affected by the snake's introduction was that of native bird species such as the Mariana fruit dove, the Guam flycatcher, the rufous fantail and the Micronesian myzomela. The introduction of the brown tree snake into Guam has resulted in extinction of twelve native bird species in total. The Guam National Wild fauna Refuge is attempting to foreclose the extinction of boosted bird species endangered past the serpent.^[21] Other species significantly affected by the invasion of these snakes were small lizards and pocket-size mammals.^[18] Research has indicated a direct correlation of the spread of these snakes across the island to the decrease in the populations of these native species. Furthermore, the introduction of the brown tree serpent has had an indirect, negative impact on vegetative diversity as its intense predatory nature has decreased populations of vital pollinators including native birds and fruit bats. Data collected from nearby islands defective brown tree snake populations depict a significant difference in vegetative species richness, that is, islands close to and like to Guam in which the brown tree ophidian has not been introduced have greater vegetative species diversity. Overall, the vertebrate creature and native flora of Guam take suffered tremendously because of the introduction of the brown tree serpent.^[20]

Population control methods [edit]

Capturing and poisoning methods [edit]

Biodegradable aerial bait cartridges consisting each of a dead mouse and lxxx mg acetaminophen tablets, designed to catch on trees in areas where brown tree snakes are invasive

Given the environmental touch on of the brown tree ophidian, studies accept attempted to provide a capturing methodology to alleviate the detrimental furnishings of the tree snake. The use of mice as bait has shown considerable reduction effects when combined with acetaminophen, to which the snake is particularly sensitive, in a marker-recapture experiment leading to potential widespread application in Guam.^[22] When utilizing a precisely divers treated plot with results corrected for immigration and emigration, the additive outcome of both acetaminophen and mice usage shows a 0% survival rate of the dark-brown tree snake. In the written report, 80 mg of acetaminophen was inserted into mouse carcasses.^[19] In addition, one study showed that increasing inter-trap spacing would not only increment efficiency, but as well not compromise efficacy as 20-, 30-, and twoscore-metre long perimeter trap lines were compared and no difference was establish.^[23] Another study echoed the aforementioned notion of increasing inter-trap spacing.^[24]

Predation on dark-brown tree snakes [edit]

An investigative report was performed to find predators of the brownish tree snake that could mayhap serve as a population control method. In this study two actual predators were identified and 55 potential predators were identified: the 2 actual predators identified were the red-bellied black ophidian and the cane toad.^[25] Actual predators were identified past evidence showing that they would actually prey upon and consume the brown tree snake in a natural habitat whereas potential predators were identified equally species that were but physically capable of consuming the dark-brown tree snake.^[26] The research collected in this study suggested that fifty-fifty with the introduction of brown tree snake predation, it was unlikely this would serve as an constructive brown tree snake population control method.^[25] One reason for this conclusion was that the identified bodily predators of the brown tree snake are generalist feeders and would cause farther detriment to other native island species.^[26]

Another possible negative outcome of introducing species every bit a command method for the dark-brown tree ophidian population is predation on juvenile cane toads and crimson-bellied snakes by brown tree snakes themselves, because they are opportunistic and generalist feeders.^[26] This investigation determined that the environmental and ecological risk associated with the introduction of these predators was too high to implement.^[25] Lastly, reddish-bellied snakes could pose a threat to the health of humans. The price of introduction of such predatory species outweighs the benefits and is not applied.

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f m h i j k l chiliad n o} Fritts, T.H.; D. Leasman-Tanner (2001). "The Brown Treesnake on Guam: How the arrival of one invasive species damaged the ecology, commerce, electrical systems, and human health on Guam: A comprehensive data source". U.South. Department of the Interior. Retrieved 2008-09-11 .
2. ^ Pianka, Eric R.; Rex, Dennis; Male monarch, Ruth Allen. (2004). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Indiana University Press, 588 pages ISBN 0-253-34366-6
3. ^ Savidge, Julie A.; Qualls, Fiona J.; Rodda, Gordon H. (April 2007). "Reproductive Biology of the Dark-brown Tree Snake, Boiga irregularis (Reptilia: Colubridae), during Colonization of Guam and Comparing with That in Their Native Range" (PDF). Pacific Science. 61 (ii): 191–199. doi:ten.2984/1534-6188(2007)61[191:RBOTBT]2.0.CO;two. hdl:10125/22607.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Mehrtens, John (1987). Living Snakes of the World in Color . New York: Sterling. ISBN978-0-8069-6461-4.
5. ^ Conniff, Richard (June 12, 2005). "'Out of Eden': The Origin of Invasive Species". New York Times. New York City, NY, U.s.a.. Retrieved 2014-09-01 .
6. ^ Vice, Daniel Due south.; Engeman, Richard Grand.; Hall, Marc A.; Clark, Craig S. (2009). "Working Dogs: The Last Line of Defense for Preventing Dispersal of Chocolate-brown Treesnakes from Guam" (PDF). In Helton, William S. (ed.). Canine Ergonomics: The Science of Working Dogs. Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. pp. 195–204. ISBN978-1420079913.
7. ^ Kraus, Fred (2004). "Conflicting SPECIES". Department of State and Natural Resource State of Hawaii. Archived from the original on 2008-08-02. Retrieved 2008-09-11 .
8. ^ Gorey, Colm (2018-09-27). "Snakes on a plane are spreading, driving native birds to extinction". Silicon Republic . Retrieved 2018-09-29 .
9. ^ ^{a b} Law, Jessica (2020-12-03). "Golden White-eye dodges danger of invasive snake". BirdLife International . Retrieved 2020-12-06 .
10. ^ Lendon, Brad (2010-09-07). "Tylenol-loaded mice dropped from air to control snakes". CNN.com. Retrieved 2010-09-07 .
11. ^ ^{a b c} Campbell, S.R.; Due south.P. Mackessy (2008). "Microhabitat use by dark-brown treesnakes (Boiga irregularis): Effects of moonlight and prey" (PDF). Journal of Herpetology. 42 (two): 246–250. doi:10.1670/07-0681.1. JSTOR 40060508. S2CID 4841402. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-13. Retrieved 2011-02-11 .
12. ^ ^{a b} Fritts, T.H.; M.H. Rodda (1998). "The office of introduced species in the degradation of island ecosystems: A case history of Guam". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 29: 113–140. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.29.1.113.
13. ^ Julie A. Savidge; Thomas F. Seibert; Martin Kastner; Bruce C. Jayne. "A novel mode of locomotion expands the climbing abilities of snakes" 11 Jan 2021, Current Biology. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.11.050
14. ^ Colorado State University (Jan xi, 2021). "Scientists Discover Bizarre New Style of Snake Locomotion – "Zip I'd Always Seen Compares to Information technology"". ScitechDaily.
15. ^ "Brown tree snake sighted in Lower Base of operations". Saipan News, Headlines, Events, | Saipan Tribune. April 4, 2016. Retrieved November xviii, 2019.
16. ^ ^{a b} Bomford, M.; F. Kraus (2008). "Predicting establishment for conflicting reptiles and amphibians: a role for climate matching". Biological Invasions. 11 (3): 713–724. doi:ten.1007/s10530-008-9285-three. S2CID 23888896.
17. ^ D'Evelyn, ST; Tarui, N; Burnett, Chiliad; Roumasset, JA (December 2008). "Learning-past-communicable: uncertain invasive-species populations and the value of information". Periodical of Environmental Management. 89 (4): 284–92. CiteSeerX10.1.1.487.6999. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.04.027. PMID 17767994.
18. ^ ^{a b c} Moore, Ignacio T; Greene, Michael J; Lerner, Darren T; Asher, Chance E; Krohmer, Randolph W; Hess, David L; Whittier, Joan; Mason, Robert T (January 2005). "Physiological evidence for reproductive suppression in the introduced population of brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) on Guam". Biological Conservation. 121 (1): 91–98. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.04.012.
19. ^ ^{a b} Savarie, P.J.; J.A. Shivik (2001). "Use of acetaminophen for large-scale command of brown tree snakes". Journal of Wildlife Direction. 65 (2): 356–365. doi:x.2307/3802916. JSTOR 3802916.
20. ^ ^{a b c} Mortensen, H.Due south.; Y.L. Dupont (2008). "Snake in paradise: Disturbance of plant reproduction following extirpation of bird flower-visitors on Guam". Biological Conservation. 141 (8): 2146–2154. doi:ten.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.014.
21. ^ Maxfield, Barbara (2009-07-22). "Guam National Wild animals Refuge Draft Comprehensive Conservation Plan Released for Public Review and Annotate" (PDF). United states Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2012-02-21 .
22. ^ Johnson, MA (2 Dec 2013). "Two thousand mice dropped on Guam past parachute — to kill snakes". NBCNews.com . Retrieved 6 October 2014.
23. ^ Engeman, Richard M.; Linnell, Michael A. (December 2004). "The upshot of trap spacing on the capture of brown tree snakes on Guam". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. USDA National Wild fauna Research Heart. 54 (four): 265–267. doi:10.1016/j.ibiod.2004.03.003.
24. ^ Engeman, Richard M.; Vice, Daniel S.; Nelson, George; Muña, Ernest (Apr 2000). "Brown tree snakes effectively removed from a big plot of state on Guam by perimeter trapping". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. USDA National Wildlife Enquiry Centre. 45 (3–four): 139–142. doi:10.1016/S0964-8305(00)00039-ane.
25. ^ ^{a b c} Caudell, J.Due north.; M.R. Conover (2001). "Predation of brownish tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) in Australia". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. 49 (2–iii): 107–111. doi:10.1016/s0964-8305(01)00110-10.
26. ^ ^{a b c} Burnett, K.M.; S. D'Evelyn (2008). "Beyond the lamppost: Optimal prevention and control of the Brown Tree Snake in Hawaii". 67 (1). Ecological Economics: 66–74. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.11.012.

External links [edit]

Media related to Boiga irregularis at Wikimedia Eatables

• Species Profile: Chocolate-brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for the brown tree snake.

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